Anaphora in the African Languages

Questionnaire Response for Ikalanga, Chililima dialect, version 1.6

The dialect reported on is the Chililima or Central District dialect of Ikalanga, also called Kalanga, which is spoken in Zimbabwe and Botswana (Ethnologue code KCK). Guthrie 1967 71 classifies Ikalanga as S.16, putting it in area S with other southern Bantu languages such as Setswana, Sesotho, Venda etc.

The consultant, Rose Letsholo, is a professor in the Department of English at the University of Botswana, and has a PhD in linguistics from the University of Michigan. She specializes in syntax, and wrote her dissertation on Syntactic Domains in Ikalanga. She’s also familiar with typological linguistics, formal semantics, pragmatics and some phonetics and phonology.

Rose is a native speaker of both Ikalanga and Setswana, and her parents spoke Ikalanga and Setswana natively, but also some English in the home. She received school instruction in English and Setswana

Contact Information: Rose Meleko Letsholo

University of Botswana Department of English,

Private Bag 0703,

Gaborone, Botswana

letsholor@mopipi.ub.bw

References.

Mathangwane, Joyce. 1999. Ikalanga Phonetics and Phonology: A Synchronic and Diachronic Study

Letsholo, Rose M. 2004. Clausal and DP-Internal Agreement in Ikalanga. Studies in African Linguistics, Vol. 33. No. 1, pp 91 – 127..

_____________ 2002. Subjects, their (dis)Location and Agreement in Ikalanga. in Linguistic Analysis. Vol. 1/32, No. 3-4. pp 508 – 543.

_____________ 2006. WH Constructions in Ikalanga: A Remnant Movement Analysis. in Selected Proceedings of the 35^th Annual Conference in African Linguistics (ACAL): Languages and Linguistics in Broad Perspective. Sommerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Pp 258 – 283.

Lecture Notes given at Oakland University, Fall 2005. The Structure of Bantu (with specific focus on Ikalanga). The notes are in manuscript form.

2.1 Coreference in a single clause

2.1.1 "Primary" reflexive strategy - Translate the following example to your language, and indicate the element (if any) that expresses the reflexive relationship.

A1) John saw himself.

John wa-ka-zwi-bona.

John_1a SA_1a-past-REFLEXIVE-see

Comment: The ZWI- strategy

2.1.2 Is there another way, or are there other ways, to express coreference in A1 (that is, with the verb see held constant.

Comment: No

2.1.3 Other verb types - Some languages use a special reflexive strategy with certain verbs, especially "commonly reflexive" verbs of grooming such as "wash", "shave", "bathe,” etc.

Comment: No other strategy for indicating reflexive.

Do any of the following (or any other verbs you can think of) involve a strategy that you have not listed already?

A2a) John washes himself.

b) Mary cut herself. [accidentally]

c) John is ashamed of himself.

d) John destroyed himself.

e) We hate ourselves.

Comment: All these use the ZWI- strategy.

2.1.4 Obliques and other argument types

A3a) John spoke to Mary.

Joni wa-lebeleka na Meri.

John_1a SA_1a-talk with Mary_1a

b) John spoke about himself. (subject/PP argument)

Joni wa-lebeleka ne kukwe

John_k SA_1a-talk about him_i/her_j/himself

Comment: The meaning is ambiguous: John talked about himself or about some other person who could be male or female since Ikalanga does not make gender distinctions in its pronoun forms.

c) John told Mary about himself. (same, with intervening NP)

Joni wa-ka-budza Meri ne kukwe

John SA_1a-past-tell Mary about him/her/himself

Comment: Same observation holds as in (b), that is kukwe could mean John or some other person.

d) Bill told us about ourselves. (object/argument)

Bill wa-ka-ti-budza ne kwedu.

Bill_1a SA_1a-past-OM-tell about ourselves (N.B not ambiguous)

e) Mary gave the children themselves. (ind.object/object)

Meri wa-ka-pa bana ibo.

Mary_1a SA₁-past-give children₂ them₂

Comment: Ibo is used emphatically or to mean someone else; that is, Mary gave the children some other people. I suppose ibo can also refer to the children.

F1) Mary wa-ka-pa bana ibo.

Mary_1a SA_1a-past-give children₂ them

This is the emphatic interpretation, that is, Mary gave the children whatever, and not somebody else.

Comment: The reflexive ZWI cannot be used to express this sentence.

*Meri wa-ka-zwi-pa bana.

Mary_1a SA_1a-past-REFLEXIVE-give children

f) Mary saw a book behind her. (subject/locative)

Meri wa-ka-bona buka shule kukwe.

Mary_1a SA_1a-past-see book behind her/him

Comment: This is ambiguous Mary saw a book behind Mary or Mary saw a book behind someone else.

g) John bought the book for himself. (benefactive)

Joni wa-ka-zwi-teng-ela buka.

John_1a SA_1a-past-REFLEXIVE-buy-APPLICATIVE book

Comment: There is no other way of expressing this sentence.

Also consider things like experiencer‑subject verbs, non‑nominative subjects, etc., which have unusual argument structures in many languages. Some verb meanings you might try:

A4a) Etta likes herself.

Wedu u-no-zwi-da.

Wedu_1a SA_1a-pres.-REFL-like

b) Etta scares herself.

Wedu u-no-zwi-chisa.

Wedu_1a SA_1a-pres-REFL-scare

c) Etta worries herself.

Wedu u-no-zwi-tswhenya.

Wedu_1a SA_1a-pres-REFL-worry

2.1.5 Person and number - Some languages use different strategies depending on person or number.

Comment: All these use the ZWI strategy.

A5a) I saw myself.

b) You cut yourself [accidentally].

c) We will wash ourselves.

d) You must help yourselves.

2.1.6 Strategies for other clausemate environments

(a) Is there any strategy which is only possible with some special aspectual class of a verb? Some examples:

Comment: Only the ZWI strategy as far as I can tell.

A6a) Peter knows himself.

Peta u-no-zwi-ziba.

b) Peter (habitually) criticizes himself.

Peta u-no-zwi-tswhaya phoso

c) Peter is likely to praise himself.

Peter u-nga-zwi-khuza.

(b) Do quantificational constructions involve a separate strategy? NO

A7a) Every boy looked at himself.

b) All the women described John to themselves.

c) Every teacher introduced himself to Bob.

d) Some children only help themselves.

(c) If your language has a system of grammaticized honorifics, do some types of honorific allow a strategy that has not been listed yet?

Comment: My language has honorifics, but it does not employ a different strategy of reflexivization. E.g. adults are addressed in plural form. See example below:

F2) Mme ba-ka-zwi-bik-ila nyama.

Mother_2a SA_2a-past-REFLX-cook-APPL meat

Mother is cooking meat for herself.

(d) Experiment with placing both coreferring arguments in various types of subordinate clauses, as your language allows.

A9a) Sol says that Alice loves herself.

Soli a-kati Alisi u-no-ZWI-da

Sol_1a SA_1a-says-that Alice_1a SA_1a-pres.-REFLX-love

b) Sol required that Alice praise herself.

Soli u-no-shaka kuti Alisi a- ZWI-khuze

Sol SA_1a-pres-wants that Alice SA_1a REFLX-praise

d) Sol asked Alice to praise herself.

Soli wa-ka-kumbila Alisi kuti a-zwi-khuze.

S_1a SA₁-past-ask A_1a that SA₁-REFLX-praise

Sol asked Alice to praise herself.

e) Sol wants to praise himself.

Soli u-no-shaka ku-zwi-khuza.

S_1a SA₁-pres.-want to-REFLX-praise

f) Sol u-no-shaka kuti Alice a-zwi-khuze.

S₁ SA₁-pres.-want that A_1a SA₁-REFLX-praise

Sol expects Alice to praise herself.

g) Soli wa-ka-hwa Alisi e-zwi-khuza.

S₁ SA₁-past-hear A₁ SA₁-REFLX-praise

Sol heard Alice praising herself.

Comment: No new strategy is observed.

2.2 Ordinary (potentially independent) pronouns

2.2.1 First, show that the pronouns can be independent by using them in a sentence where they do not have an antecedent. In the paradigms below, for example, the first sentence provides a context, and, for A10a,b the pronoun appears in the second sentence without an antecedent in that sentence, but referring to Abraham.

A10a) I spoke with Abraham yesterday. He saw Lela.

(imi) Nda-ka-bona Abraham madekwe. (Iye) wa-ka-bona Lela.

I SA₁-past-see Ab yesterday. (He/She) SA_1a-past-see Lela

bi) Where is Abraham? I saw him in the market.

Abraham u-ngayi? Nda-ka-m-bona ku mmaraka.

Ab_1a SA_1a-where? 1^st pers.AGR-past-OM-see at market

bii) Abraham u-ngayi? Nda-ka-bona *iye ku mmaraka

Comment: A full pronoun is not allowed in the second sentence. Only the OM is permissible. The full pronoun ‘iye’ can only be used for contrastive purposes.

c) We saw you. Did you see me/us?

(Iswi) ta-ka-ku-bona. (Iwe) wa-ka-ti-bona?

(We) SA_1a(PL)-past-OM_(sing.)-see You SA_{2nd pers.sing.}-past-OM-see

Comment: Again, full pronouns are not usually used. The subject markers and the object markers are used instead.

2.2.2 If your language has more than one type of pronouns (e.g., null, clitic and non‑clitic pronouns, strong, or stressable pronouns, etc.), list each type with examples. It is helpful for us to have full paradigms for subject, object and indirect object pronouns (only if indirect object pronouns are different from object pronouns) as well as possessive pronouns and pronouns in prepositional phrases

W1) Personal pronouns

. Subject pronouns: Full Subject agreement

a. 1^st person sing. Imi nd-

b. 1^st person plural Iswi t-

c. 2^nd person sing. Iwe w-

d. 2^nd person plural Ingwi m-

e. 3^rd person sing. Iye w-

f. 3^rd person plural Ibo b-

Examples of each of the above in their respective orders

W2)

a. Imi nda-tenga lori.

I SA_{1st p.sing.}-buy car

I have bought a car.

a’. Nda-tenga lori.

SA_{1st.pers.sing.}-buy car.

I bought a car.

a’’. *Imi tenga lori.

I buy car.

b. Iswi ta-tenga lori.

We SA_{2nd p.sing.}-buy car

We have bought a car.

b’ Ta-tenga lori.

SA_1st.p.sing.-buy car

We have bought a car.

b’’ *Iswi tenga lori.

We buy car

We have bought a car.

c. Iwe wa-tenga lori.

You_2nd.sing. SA_pers.sing.- buy car

You have bought a car.

c’ Wa-tenga lori.

c Iswi ta-tenga lori.

You SA_{2nd p.sing.}-buy car

You have bought a car.

c’’. *Iwe tenga lori.

You bought a car.

d. Ingwi ma-tenga lori.

You_2nd.p.pl SA_{2nd p.l.}-buy car

You have bought a car.

d’ Ma-tenga lori.

SA_{2nd p.l.}-buy car

You have bought a car.

d’’ Ingwi tenga lori.

You_2nd.p.pl. buy car

You have bought a car.

e. Iye wa-tenga lori.

He/she_3nd.p.sing SA_{3nd psing..}-buy car

He/she has bought a car.

e’ Wa-tenga lori.

SA_{3nd psing..}-buy car

He/she has bought a car.

e’’ * Iye tenga lori.

He/she_3nd.p.sing buy car

He/she has bought a car.

f. Ibo ba-tenga lori.

they_3nd.p..pl SA_{3nd pl.}-buy car

They have bought a car.

f’ Ba-tenga lori.

SA_{3nd pl.}-buy car

They have bought a car.

f’’ *Ibo tenga lori.

they_3nd.p..pl buy car

They have bought a car.

W3)

Object pronouns

a. Nlume wa-tenga iyo.

Man₁ SA₁-buy it.

The man bought it.

b. Nlume wa-i-tenga.

Man₁ Sa₁-OM₉-buy.

The man bought it.

c. Nlume wa-i-tenga lori.

Man₁ SA₁-OM₉-buy car

The man bought it, the car.

d. Nlume wa-tenga iyo lori

Man₁ SA₁-buy it car

The man bought it, the car.

W4)

Indirect objects

a. Nlume wa-pa iye buka

man₁ SA₁-give him/her book.

The man gave him/her (and not anyone else) a book.

b. Nlume wa-m-pa buka.

Man₁ SA₁-OM₁ book

The man gave him/her a book.

W5)

Object of preposition

ai. Neo wa-dila vula mu ili.

Neo_1a SA_1a-pour water in/on it.

Neo poured water in it (e.g a pot).

aii. Neo wa-i-dila vula.

Neo_1a SA_1a-OM₉ water

Neo poured water on it.

Comment: Cannot mean ‘Neo poured water in it if the OM is used.

bi. Neo wa-lebeleka na-ye.

Neo SA_1a-talk with-him/her

Neo talked to/with him/her.

bii. ?Neo wa-lebeleka na iye.

Neo SA_1a-talk with/to him/her.

Comment: A dialect used along the Zimbabwe border allows the full pronoun here. However, my own dialect does not.

biii. *Neo wa-lebeleka na-m.

Neo SA_1a-talk with/to-OM₁

Comment: The OM cannot occur as object of preposition. Only the full pronoun or the shortened form of the full pronoun can.

F3) Nlume wa-tenga iyo.

Man₁ SA₁-buy it.

The man bought it.

2.2.3 Null arguments - If your language allows argument drop (null pronouns, or pro‑drop) as a pronominalization strategy in simple (single clause) sentences, then name it here as an additional pronominalization option. This kind of argument drop has the interpretation is like that of an independent pronoun.

A10 d) Ate fish. (meaning he/she/they/it/we/you/I ate fish)

Wa-ja hobe.

SA₁-ate fish

(he/she) ate fish.

Comment: Like the English verb like “Mary ate”, the Ikalanga counterpart permits the object to be null.

F4) Meri wa-ka-ja.

Mary_1a SA₁-past-eat.

e) Hal hit (meaning Hal hit him/her/them/it/us/you/me)

*Neo wa-loba

Neo_1a SA_1a-hit

f) Hal talked to (meaning Hal talked to him/her/them/it/us/you/me)

*Neo wa-lebeleka na

Neo_1a SA_1atalk to/with

2.2.4 The use of otherwise independent pronouns for clausemate anaphora

A10gi) Ali praised him.

Ali wa-ka-n-khuza.

Ali_i SA_1a-past-OM_j-praise

Ali praised someone

Comment: The OM cannot refer to Ali

gii) Ali wa-ka-khuza iye_j.